The Great Famine and Murrains in England 1315-1322 Part Two
By the end of 1316, people must have been dreading what 1317 would bring. In fact the weather improved enough to allow a better harvest than the previous two years, and corn prices dropped by 50%. In 1318, harvest totals were back to normal and it seemed that the times of hardship and famine were over - for the majority in England at least. On the northern borders, where the Scots were still raiding, the hardship continued.
The Great Cattle Murrain
The relief was short-lived, however, as at Easter in 1319, a terrible new threat landed on Britain's shores. The county of Essex saw the outbreak of a devastating murrain of cattle, the infectivity and mortality rate of which was unprecedented. It didn't come out of nowhere: from the information gathered in various chronicles and letters, it seems that it may have started in Mongolia around 1314/15, spreading to Bohemia in 1315 before reaching Germany, Denmark, the Low Countries, and France in 1318. From there it crossed the Channel into south-east England in 1319 and thence into Scotland (1319/20), Wales (1320), and Ireland (1321). Because of the steady but rapid progression from east to west, and the high mortality seen in herds, Timothy Newfield, in his article 'A Cattle Panzootic in Early Fourteenth-Century Europe' argues that this was a previously unknown disease, affecting 'virgin' populations (hence no immunity from previous infection). However, there are plenty of other known candidates that partially or fully fit the frame, and any animal population not exposed to a disease for a while would be a ‘virgin’ population.
As with the Great Famine, the chroniclers of England were quick to record such an event, Johannis de Trokelowe (c. 1280-c.1330) in particular. Speaking of 1319, he says:
In the course of the same year a great pestilential mortality of cattle grew strong through all of England, as no one had seen before. In this pestilence a miraculous thing occurred whereby both the dogs and birds that were feasting on the bodies of the dead cattle swelled up right away and died of infection. After this, there was no person who presumed to taste bovine flesh lest having been infected he might succumb from the carrion. Indeed at Easter the plague began at Essex and continued through the whole year.
Newfield's article also quotes from an untranscribed and untranslated chronicle from the Cistercian abbey in Newenham in Devon:
There was indeed a great famine and pestilence of humans, but of the poor especially, and [there was] a great, very large and unheard of mortality among cattle, namely oxen, cows and calves, continuing through many years; indeed everywhere they were walking and standing they were lamenting to those people looking at them, roaring as if in tears because of the harsh pain making them anxious on the inside, and thus suddenly falling down they were dying away from that house [presumably the abbey].
(From the Newenham Chronicle and quoted in 'A Cattle Panzootic in Early Fourteenth Century Europe')
Losses
The disease did not burn itself out either but seemed to persist over the next few years, reducing cattle numbers in most places by an average of at least 60 per cent (although some fared much worse and some better). For example, the royal manor of Clipstone, in 1317, had about 186 cattle and oxen, but by 1320 there were only 64 and half of those were described as being diseased. The herds of the large Winchester estates were also badly hit, losing 588 cattle out of 1088 in a year. Byfleet lost 13 out of 18 cattle (72%) and Gravesend lost all of their stock.
The loss of such numbers of oxen not only affected stocks of meat and milk, it also affected the farmers' ability to plough and cultivate. In some places horses were used instead, otherwise it was once more a struggle to get crops into the ground. The murrain may also have affected Edward II's Scottish Campaign of 1322 by reducing the amount of beef available for the moving and foraging army. Although it was not the only reason why it faltered (difficulty in re-supply by his ships and illness were other factors), it must certainly have had some effect.
What Disease Caused the Murrain?
So what was this mysterious murrain? Surprisingly there have been no attempts at the current time of writing to isolate a DNA trace from any cattle bones from the period. Maybe there are no such remains or retrieving DNA that links to a reason for mortality is not yet possible. Therefore, any efforts to diagnose the pathogen responsible is always going to be a speculatory exercise, but several historians and virologists have made attempts. Below, I shall lay out some obvious suspects and the pros and cons of each one.
All we have to go on are the facts that it was extremely infectious, had a high mortality rate, and spread quickly. Given the poor state of biosecurity in the Middle Ages, it is almost certain that diseased cattle would have mixed with healthy ones by movement to markets or exports and that therefore the disease must have been spread by contact between animals or soil contamination rather than a 3rd party vector (such as a mosquito).
The chroniclers do not, annoyingly, record the symptoms with any great detail, although from the Newenham account, they appeared to be suffering from internal pain before suddenly dropping dead.
Possible Culprits
Rinderpest
This deadly disease has gained popularity as a suspect. Rinderpest, caused by a morbillivirus virus strain, has an incubation period of between three and nine days and can cause up to 90% mortality in virgin populations. Its symptoms include fever, restlessness, listlessness, nasal secretions, salivation, rapid breathing, thirst, and violent diarrhoea. Death occurs in six to twelve days.
For: Highly infectious disease of cattle with a very high mortality rate. Originated in Asia.
Against: Death isn’t sudden. Mortality rate probably too high (the murrain had a rate of around 60%).
Anthrax
Anthrax in cattle is a severe bacterial disease caused by Bacillus anthracis, affecting both wild and domesticated animals. The bacteria produce spores that can survive in the environment for decades, making it challenging to eradicate and control outbreaks.
Transmission occurs when cattle ingest or inhale the spores while grazing on contaminated soil or consuming contaminated feed. Once infected, the disease progresses rapidly, often resulting in death within a few days if not treated promptly. Symptoms in cattle include fever, difficulty breathing, uncoordinated movements, and swelling in the neck or shoulders. In some cases, animals may die without showing any prior signs of illness.
For: Anthrax can cause a widespread epizootic and has a high mortality rate. Death can be rapid.
Against: Does not spread from animal to animal - only through spores in the environment, so it is not as infectious as the contemporary reports suggest it is. Anthrax also affects other animals and humans but the murrain pathogen mostly killed cattle. There are reports of diseased carcasses from the murrain being fed on by dogs and birds who subsequently bloated and died. However, while anthrax can cause bloat it is usually post-mortem. Scavengers such as dogs and birds are usually resistant to anthrax although there can be occasional deaths. The mortality rate for anthrax in cattle is too high compared to recorded deaths.
Blackleg
This is an infection caused by Clostridium chauvoei. It is a fast-acting bacterial disease causing, in the first instance, fever and then swollen muscle tissue. The bacteria (Clostridium chauvoei) produce gas which builds up in the muscles causing painful ulcers. The beast becomes lame, listless, and finally succumbs with prostrations and tremors. Death can occur in as little as 12 hours and the disease has a mortality rate approaching 100%. In a few cases, the animal may even die without obvious symptoms (if the bacteria have attacked an internal muscle area such as the heart). It spreads through pasture contaminated by the manure of affected cattle; the soil can remain contaminated by the bacterial spores for many years, causing repeat occurrences.
Animals that die of blackleg bloat very rapidly and produce a rancid butter aroma. The Bridlington chronicler spoke of cattle having to be buried quickly because of the stench. That this was noted at all must mean that it was something that varied from the usual smell of decay that accompanied death.
For: Death can be very quick and mortality is very high. The build-up of gas inside muscles can be very painful for the animal.
Against: Like anthrax, it spreads through the spores contaminating the soil rather than from animal to animal. Therefore, considering the speed of the spread of the murrain’s pathogen, it is unlikely to be the main cause.
Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD)
Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is a highly contagious viral disease that affects cloven-hoofed animals, including cattle, sheep, goats, and pigs. Caused by the foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV), it is known for its rapid spread and significant economic impact on the agricultural sector. FMD is characterized by fever followed by the appearance of vesicles (blisters) in the mouth, on the feet, and between the toes and teats. These blisters can cause salivation, lameness, and reluctance to move or eat, leading to severe weight loss and decreased milk production in dairy cattle.
FMD spreads through direct contact with infected animals, their secretions, or contaminated feed and environments. The virus can also be carried by the wind, humans, and animals moving between farms, making its containment challenging.
Although FMD is not typically fatal in adult animals, it can lead to high mortality in young stock due to myocarditis (inflammation of the heart muscle).
For: Very infectious and hard to contain which means that the disease could spread fast and far.
Against: Affects other livestock and there are no records of anything other than cattle being affected by the murrain. It has a very low mortality in adult cattle of less than 5%, which doesn’t match the losses seen during the murrain.
Mycoplasma mycoides - Bovine Pleuropneumonia
Bovine pleuropneumonia is a contagious respiratory disease that primarily affects cattle, caused by the bacterium Mycoplasma mycoides . The disease is known for its rapid spread among cattle through close contact, with transmission facilitated by aerosolised droplets from coughing animals.
Symptoms of bovine pleuropneumonia include fever, labored and painful breathing, coughing, and reluctance to move due to chest pain. Affected animals may stand with elbows turned out and necks extended to ease their breathing. The mortality rate can range from 20% to 50%, and in some severe outbreaks, it can even reach up to 70% or higher where cattle are not in good condition.
For: Highly Infectious - passed from animal to animal through aerosolised nasal secretions and close contact. The mortality rate is similar to what was recorded at the time. Symptoms suggest that animals would look in pain. The ‘roaring’ recorded by the Newenham chronicler may have been the sound of the sick animal’s laboured breathing and coughing. Only affects cattle.
Against: I have had trouble finding anything against Bovine Pleuropneumonia being the most likely pathogen of the murrain.
Of course, pathogens that exist over centuries may mutate into forms that are different from what we see today - so it is difficult to 100% rule out any of the above. It is also possible that there were several diseases present in the country that year. However, sadly, we may never know.
Even if the cause isn’t known, the effects of the murrain certainly are. Many estates took years to rebuild their stocks, with the disease often making a return during the next decade. Cultivation was also affected due to the lack of plough beasts. When the next few years saw the return of bad harvests and weather (droughts as well as rain), it became just another terrible link in a chain of catastrophes that drove England beyond the brink of an agricultural crisis. I think there can be no doubt that it also played its part in some of the civil unrest seen during Edward II's reign although, as far as I know, no one has investigated that angle as yet. There is no doubt though that the famine and murrains seriously affected England's economy and agricultural landscape, as well as the general health of the population setting the stage for the later devastating impact of the Black Death.
Sources:
'A Cattle Panzootic in Early Fourteenth Century Europe', Timothy P. Newfield, in Agricultural History Review 57 (2009), pp. 155-190
'The Great Famine and Agrarian Crisis in England 1315-1322', Ian Kershaw, in Past and Present, No 59 (May 1973), pp.3-50
The Merck Veterinary Manual for Veterinary Professionals, accessed at: http://www.merckmanuals.com/vet/generalized_conditions/clostridial_diseases/blackleg.html
Chronicles of the Reigns of Edward I and Edward II, ed H. Laurd
Johannis de Trokelowe et Henrici de Blaneforde, Chronica et Annales, ed. Riley